[131][132][n 8], Although minute quantities of some transuranic elements occur naturally,[3] they were all first discovered in laboratories. The definition of a transition metal, as given by IUPAC in the Gold Book, is an element whose atom has an incomplete d sub-shell, or which can give rise to cations with an incomplete d sub-shell. To make the macro work with an external source such as a webpage, we’ll need Microsoft’s Internet Explore (to open the page and will remain hidden). For examples of the group 3 = Sc-Y-Lu-Lr table see Rayner-Canham G. & Overton T. (2013). Visualizing the atom was a free-for-all, and Mendeleev’s justification for a periodic table based on atomic weights was falling apart at the seams. [33] The subject metals are light, reactive, and mostly of low mechanical strength, melting and boiling points. [153], The various forms of periodic tables can be thought of as lying on a chemistry–physics continuum. Chemically, the group 3 elements, lanthanides, and heavy group 4 and 5 elements show some behaviour similar to the alkaline earth metals[80] or, more generally, s block metals[81][82][83] but have some of the physical properties of d block transition metals. [190], In other tables, lutetium and lawrencium are the remaining group 3 members. A common alternative is at the top of group 17[159] given hydrogen's strictly univalent and largely non-metallic chemistry, and the strictly univalent and non-metallic chemistry of fluorine (the element otherwise at the top of group 17). [122] It is often stated that the last naturally occurring element to be discovered was francium (referred to by Mendeleev as eka-caesium) in 1939, but it was technically only the last element to be discovered in nature as opposed to by synthesis. The effect of the lanthanide contraction is noticeable up to platinum (element 78), after which it is masked by a relativistic effect known as the inert pair effect. [27], According to their shared physical and chemical properties, the elements can be classified into the major categories of metals, metalloids and nonmetals. Most investigators considered that these elements were analogues of the third series transition elements, hafnium, tantalum and tungsten. They mostly behave chemically as nonmetals. [116] Mendeleev was not the first chemist to do so, but he was the first to be recognized as using the trends in his periodic table to predict the properties of those missing elements, such as gallium and germanium. [202] The 2007 report of mercury(IV) fluoride (HgF4), a compound in which mercury would use its d electrons for bonding, has prompted some commentators to suggest that mercury can be regarded as a transition metal. A fourth variant shows group 3 bifurcating after Sc-Y, into an La-Ac branch, and an Lu-Lr branch. : Symbol Vi, veraltet rumän. [28], Metal and nonmetals can be further classified into subcategories that show a gradation from metallic to non-metallic properties, when going left to right in the rows. Metalloids form weakly acidic or amphoteric oxides. [54] The s-block comprises the first two groups (alkali metals and alkaline earth metals) as well as hydrogen and helium. [220] More accurate calculations taking into account the effects of the finite size of the nucleus indicate that the binding energy first exceeds the limit for elements with more than 173 protons. [189] For example, the f-electron counts for the trivalent ions of the first three f-block elements are Ce 1, Pr 2 and Nd 3. Using atomic number gives a definitive, integer-based sequence for the elements. In this instance the group 12 elements are treated as a special case of transition metal in which the d electrons are not ordinarily given up for chemical bonding (they can sometimes contribute to the valence bonding orbitals even so, as in zinc fluoride). The difference between the two categories is more of degree than kind. Moderate to high density metals, with high melting and boiling points; many have high hardness, mechanical strength and corrosion resistance. The structure of the table shows periodic trends. Many other names for sets of elements are in common use, and yet others have been used throughout history. veraltet: Symbol Lw, veraltete Schreibweise deutsch: Lawrentium (Lw), veraltet russ. Um welches Element handelt es sich? The elements of the periodic table shown here are divided into nine categories; six for the metals, and two for nonmetals, and a metalloid category. Soft, dense and reactive metals, those from Am onwards are synthetic. [175][n 10][n 11] It has been claimed that such arguments are proof that, "it is a mistake to break the [periodic] system into sharply delimited blocks". In the middle (groups 3 to 11), higher oxidation states become more stable going down each group. [108] The Chemical Society only acknowledged the significance of his discoveries five years after they credited Mendeleev. The additional electron will be entering an orbital farther away from the nucleus. Mendeleev took the unusual step of naming missing elements using the Sanskrit numerals eka (1), dvi (2), and tri (3) to indicate that the element in question was one, two, or three rows removed from a lighter congener. The elements immediately following the lanthanides have atomic radii that are smaller than would be expected and that are almost identical to the atomic radii of the elements immediately above them. The following 11 pages use this file: User:Magog the Ogre/Multilingual legend/2020 November 21-30; User:Magog the Ogre/PD ineligible/2016 December 16-19 Future elements would have to begin an eighth row. This is an effect of the lanthanide contraction: a similar actinide contraction also exists. [127][128][129], With the development of modern quantum mechanical theories of electron configurations within atoms, it became apparent that each period (row) in the table corresponded to the filling of a quantum shell of electrons. [184], A few authors position all thirty lanthanides and actinides in the two positions below yttrium (usually via footnote markers). Ionization energy becomes greater up and to the right of the periodic table. This does not work as well for the heavier p elements: for example, silicon in silane (SiH4) shows approximate sp2 hybridisation, whereas carbon in methane (CH4) shows an almost ideal sp3 hybridisation. [192][n 15], Chemically, scandium, yttrium and lutetium (and presumably lawrencium) behave like trivalent versions of the group 1–2 metals. [103] He subsequently proposed (in 1870) a valence-based classification of the elements. veraltet: Phosphorium, Schwefel, lat. Numerous synthetic radioisotopes of naturally occurring elements have also been produced in laboratories. For heavier elements, if the innermost orbital (1s) is not filled, the electric field of the nucleus will pull an electron out of the vacuum, resulting in the spontaneous emission of a positron. The oxides are strongly to moderately basic. The second half thus suffer additional repulsion that causes the trend to split between first-half and second-half elements; this is for example evident when observing the ionisation energies of the 2p elements, in which the triads B-C-N and O-F-Ne show increases, but oxygen actually has a first ionisation slightly lower than that of nitrogen as it is easier to remove the extra, paired electron. Groups usually have more significant periodic trends than periods and blocks, explained below. However, the 2005 IUPAC nomenclature as codified in the Red Book gives both the group 3–11 and group 3–12 definitions of the transition metals as alternatives. – US-Vorschlag 1954 –, veraltet: Eka-Tantal, Amerizium, Americium, veraltet: Eka-Europium, Kalifornium, engl. The relativistic Dirac equation has problems for elements with more than 137 protons. [10][11][12][13], The first 94 elements occur naturally; the remaining 24, americium to oganesson (95–118), occur only when synthesized in laboratories. [93], The 3d elements show the opposite effect; the 3d orbitals are smaller than would be expected, with a radial extent similar to the 3p core shell, which weakens bonding to ligands because they cannot overlap with the ligands' orbitals well enough. Die deutschen Schreibweisen sind nicht extra markiert, die englischsprachigen mit engl., französisch mit frz., russisch mit russ., lateinisch mit lat., griechisch mit gr. Scientists Name 4 New Elements On The Periodic Table", "Naming of New Elements (IUPAC Recommendations 2002)", "On the classification and the atomic weights of the so-called chemical elements, with particular reference to Stas's determinations", "Copernicium is a Relativistic Noble Liquid", "A Study of the Physical and Mechanical Properties of Lutetium Compared with Those of Transition Metals: A Data Mining Approach", "Measurement of the first ionization potential of lawrencium, element 103", "The role of radial nodes of atomic orbitals for chemical bonding and the periodic table", "Периодическая система химических элементов Д. И. Менделеева", "Über die s. g. gepaarten Verbindungen und die Theorie der mehratomigen Radicale", "Alexandre-Emile Bélguier de Chancourtois (1820–1886)", https://reader.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/fs1/object/goToPage/bsb10073411.html?pageNo=147, "D. I. Mendeleev's Concept of Chemical Elements and the Principle of Chemistry", "Francium (Atomic Number 87), the Last Discovered Natural Element", "Discovery of the elements with atomic numbers greater than or equal to 113 (IUPAC Technical Report)", "Beitrag zum Ausbau des periodischen Systems", "Classification, symmetry and the periodic table", "Concerning electronegativity as a basic elemental property and why the periodic table is usually represented in its medium form", "Weird Words of Science: Lemniscate Elemental Landscapes", "1925 Courtines' Periodic Classification", "1989 Physicist's Periodic Table by Timothy Stowe", "2002 Inorganic Chemist's Periodic Table", "On the position of helium and neon in the Periodic Table of Elements", "Mendeleev's Periodic Table Is Finally Completed and What To Do about Group 3? [78], From left to right across the four blocks of the long- or 32-column form of the periodic table are a series of linking or bridging groups of elements, located approximately between each block. [134] In 2010, a joint Russia–US collaboration at Dubna, Moscow Oblast, Russia, claimed to have synthesized six atoms of tennessine (element 117), making it the most recently claimed discovery. Many actinides form colored compounds. For magnesium as an example, the first ionization energy is 738 kJ/mol and the second is 1450 kJ/mol. Their production has expanded the periodic table significantly, the first of these being neptunium, synthesized in 1939. The other period 1 element, helium, is most often placed in group 18 with the other noble gases, as its extraordinary inertness is extremely close to that of the other light noble gases neon and argon. In 1988, the new IUPAC naming system was put into use, and the old group names were deprecated.[48]. : Copper, lat./engl. [4] Mendeleev's idea has been slowly expanded and refined with the discovery or synthesis of further new elements and the development of new theoretical models to explain chemical behaviour. In this variant, the number of f electrons in the most common (trivalent) ions of the f-block elements consistently matches their position in the f-block. Nevertheless, it is unclear whether new eighth-row elements will continue the pattern of the current periodic table, or require further adaptations or adjustments. The early actinides (Th to Am) show some similarities to transition metals and have basic or amphoteric oxides; the late actinides are more like the lanthanides. They form acidic, and neutral (H2O, CO, NO, N2O) oxides. : Cuprum, veraltet frz/engl: Symbol Cb, Niob, Niobium, veraltet frz./engl. [n 18]. 1s is an exception, providing nearly complete shielding. November 2020 um 07:20 Uhr bearbeitet. [94], In 1789, Antoine Lavoisier published a list of 33 chemical elements, grouping them into gases, metals, nonmetals, and earths. [225], This article is about the table used in chemistry and physics. It was first proposed by Linus Pauling in 1932. Die Elemente sind nach der Ordnungszahl sortiert. The combination of horizontal and vertical trends in metallic character explains the stair-shaped dividing line between metals and nonmetals found on some periodic tables, and the practice of sometimes categorizing several elements adjacent to that line, or elements adjacent to those elements, as metalloids. The chemistry of superheavy elements", "A suggested periodic table up to Z ≤ 172, based on Dirac–Fock calculations on atoms and ions", "transuranium element (chemical element)", "Shape coexistence and triaxiality in the superheavy nuclei", "Superheavy elements – the quest in perspective", "Would Element 137 Really Spell the End of the Periodic Table? Scientists need not, "lose sleep over the hard cases as long as a classification system is beneficial to economy of description, to structuring knowledge and to our understanding, and hard cases constitute a small minority."[31]. [208], Currently, the periodic table has seven complete rows, with all spaces filled in with discovered elements. : Oxygenium, Phosphor, lat. In going down a group, around one-third of elements are anomalous, with heavier elements having higher electron affinities than their next lighter congenors. It has been suggested that Mendeleev, in doing so, was paying homage to ancient Sanskrit grammarians, in particular Pāṇini, who devised a periodic alphabet for the language. [69], Electron affinity generally increases across a period. Mendeleev published in 1869, using atomic weight to organize the elements, information determinable to fair precision in his time. : Phosphorus, engl. [118], Following the discovery of the atomic nucleus by Ernest Rutherford in 1911, it was proposed that the integer count of the nuclear charge is identical to the sequential place of each element in the periodic table. The organization of the periodic table can be used to derive relationships between the various element properties, and also to predict chemical properties and behaviours of undiscovered or newly synthesized elements. [117] The second decision was to occasionally ignore the order suggested by the atomic weights and switch adjacent elements, such as tellurium and iodine, to better classify them into chemical families. Die vorhergesagten Eka-Elemente wurden auch mit dem Element-Symbol „E“, Mit Symbol „X“ wird in der Chemie verallgemeinernd ein Atom eines (beliebigen) Halogens gemeint, Mit Symbol „A“ wird in der Chemie das Anion in einer Salzlösung gemeint, Mit Symbol „K“ wird in der Chemie das Kation in einer Salzlösung gemeint, Mit Symbol „Me“ wird in der Chemie verallgemeinernd ein (beliebiges) Atom eines Metalls gemeint, Mit Symbol „R“ wird in der Chemie verallgemeinernd ein beliebiger organischer Rest gemeint. The column on the far right also lists the Entdecker (discoverer) and the year (Jahr) of discovery. Electrons in the closer orbitals experience greater forces of electrostatic attraction; thus, their removal requires increasingly more energy. Among the transition metals, the noble metals (generally Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Os, Ir, Pt, and Au) correspond to the noble gases,[35] although concern has been raised about the inclusion of silver due to its greater chemical reactivity compared to the other seven noble metals.[36]. Hinweis zur Nutzung der Tabelle: Durch Klick auf die Doppelpfeile in der obersten Zeile kann die Tabelle nach den Werten der jeweiligen Spalte sortiert werden (alphabetisch oder numerisch). [91][92] The relatively inert noble gases, in group 18, bridge the most reactive groups of elements in the periodic table—the halogens in group 17 and the alkali metals in group 1. Generally, nonmetals have more positive electron affinity values than metals. In general, groups at the peripheries of blocks display similarities to the groups of the neighbouring blocks as well as to the other groups in their own blocks, as expected as most periodic trends are continuous. In 1913, chemistry and physics were topsy-turvy. With an atomic number of ten, neon has two electrons in the first shell, and eight electrons in the second shell; there are two electrons in the s subshell and six in the p subshell. [14], In chronological order, this section discusses metals and nonmetals (and metalloids); categories of elements; groups and periods; and periodic table blocks. : Celtium (veraltetes Symbol? Diese Liste der chemischen Elemente enthält sämtliche bisher bekannten 118 Elemente sowie einige ihrer Eigenschaften. Tables featuring a bifurcated group 3 have been periodically proposed since that time. The detachment of the lanthanides from the main body of the periodic table has been attributed to the Czech chemist. : Astatium?, veraltet: Eka-Iod, veraltet (USA 1931): Alabamium (Ab), veraltet engl: Symbol Nt, Radon, veraltet engl. While the recognition of metals as solid, fusible and generally malleable substances dates from antiquity,[15][16] Antoine Lavoisier may have the first to formally distinguish between metals and nonmetals ('non-métalliques') in 1789 with the publication of his 'revolutionary'[17] Elementary Treatise on Chemistry. : Scandium, veraltet: Eka-Bor, deutsch/engl: Vanadium, veraltet deutsch: Vanadin, Kupfer, engl. Seaborg's colleagues advised him not to publish such a radical suggestion as it would most likely ruin his career. veraltet frz: Symbol Gl, Beryllium, veraltet franz. The periodic table of the chemical elements In chemistry, an element is a pure substance consisting only of atoms that all have the same numbers of protons in their atomic nuclei. While the solids are brittle most of these are also known in malleable, pliable or ductile forms. But for the existence of the lanthanides the composition of group 3 would not have been a source of any special interest, since scandium, yttrium, lanthanum and actinium exhibit the same gradual change in properties as do calcium, strontium, barium and radium in group 2. Diese Seite wurde zuletzt am 24. The group 1 members are easily cut with a knife. [n 13] Early techniques for chemically separating scandium, yttrium and lutetium relied on the fact that these elements occurred together in the so-called "yttrium group" whereas La and Ac occurred together in the "cerium group". A popular visualization of all 118 elements is the periodic table of the elements, a convenient tabular arrangement of the elements by their chemical properties that uses abbreviated chemical symbols in place of full element names, … They are abundant but widely dispersed; commercially viable concentrations are thus rare. Other classification schemes are possible such as the division of the elements into mineralogical occurrence categories, or crystalline structures. [147], Most periodic tables are two-dimensional;[3] three-dimensional tables are known to as far back as at least 1862 (pre-dating Mendeleev's two-dimensional table of 1869). veraltet: Symbol Bo, veraltet: Symbol Uns, Bohrium, veraltet: Nielsbohrium (Ns, veraltet: Symbol Uno, Hassium, veraltet: Unniloctium (Uno), veraltet: Eka-Osmium, veraltet: Symbol Une, Meitnerium, veraltet: Unnilennium (Une), veraltet: Symbol Uun, Darmstadtium, veraltet: Ununnilium (Uun), veraltet: Eka-Platin, veraltet: Symbol Uuu, Röntgenium, engl. [73][74], With some minor exceptions, oxidation numbers among the elements show four main trends according to their periodic table geographic location: left; middle; right; and south. 178 Lösung. [197] This form moreover reduces the f-block to a degenerate branch of group 3 of the d-block; it dates back to the 1920s when the lanthanides were thought to have their f electrons as core electrons, which is now known to be false. For examples of the group 3 = Ln and An table see Housecroft C. E. & Sharpe A. G. (2008). There are currently several competing theoretical models for the placement of the elements of atomic number less than or equal to 172. He was the first person to notice the periodicity of the elements. The small size of the 2p shell is also responsible for the extremely high electronegativities of the 2p elements. This also explains why the 3d contraction has a stronger effect on the following elements than the 4d or 5d ones do. You may have already requested this item. [61], Such contractions exist throughout the table, but are chemically most relevant for the lanthanides with their almost constant +3 oxidation state. : Symbol MI, Frankium, Francium, (fälschlich?)Franzium. In 1913, English physicist Henry Moseley using X-ray spectroscopy confirmed this proposal experimentally. [62], Large jumps in the successive molar ionization energies occur when removing an electron from a noble gas (complete electron shell) configuration. [180] Most working chemists are not aware there is any controversy. [84] In fact, the metals all the way up to group 6 are united by being class-A cations ("hard" acids) that form more stable complexes with ligands whose donor atoms are the most electronegative nonmetals nitrogen, oxygen, and fluorine; metals later in the table form a transition to class-B cations ("soft" acids) that form more stable complexes with ligands whose donor atoms are the less electronegative heavier elements of groups 15 through 17. Die Elementsymbole sind nach Elementkategorien farblich markiert: Die maximalen und die minimalen Werte für die Dichte, den Schmelzpunkt, den Siedepunkt und die Anzahl stabiler Isotope sind farblich hervorgehoben. In America, the roman numerals were followed by either an "A" if the group was in the s- or p-block, or a "B" if the group was in the d-block. [97] German chemist Leopold Gmelin worked with this system, and by 1843 he had identified ten triads, three groups of four, and one group of five. Thus, the most metallic elements (such as caesium) are found at the bottom left of traditional periodic tables and the most nonmetallic elements (such as neon) at the top right. Of the 94 naturally occurring elements, 83 are primordial and 11 occur only in decay chains of primordial elements. : Californium, veraltet: Eka-Dysprosium, veraltet frz: Symbol Ct, Fermium, veraltet frz: Centurium (Ct), veraltet: Eka-Erbium. Seaborg's suggestion was found to be correct and he subsequently went on to win the 1951 Nobel Prize in chemistry for his work in synthesizing actinide elements. [181] In December 2015 an IUPAC project was established to make a recommendation on the matter. Since there are more filled energy levels, valence electrons are found farther from the nucleus. Mit „An“ wird zusammenfassend die Gruppe der Actinoiden inklusive des Actinium benannt. 3) Beschreibe den Bau eines Natriumatoms. [79] These groups, like the metalloids, show properties in between, or that are a mixture of, groups to either side. [104], English chemist John Newlands produced a series of papers from 1863 to 1866 noting that when the elements were listed in order of increasing atomic weight, similar physical and chemical properties recurred at intervals of eight. Other forms (discussed below) show different structures in detail. [221] This does not happen if the innermost orbital is filled, so that element 173 is not necessarily the end of the periodic table. [66], The electron affinity of an atom is the amount of energy released when an electron is added to a neutral atom to form a negative ion. Placing elements into categories and subcategories based just on shared properties is imperfect. Karol (2002, p. 63) contends that gravitational effects would become significant when atomic numbers become astronomically large, thereby overcoming other super-massive nuclei instability phenomena, and that. [204], Still other chemists further exclude the group 3 elements from the definition of a transition metal. [139][143][144] As well as numerous rectangular variations, other periodic table formats have been shaped, for example,[n 9] like a circle, cube, cylinder, building, spiral, lemniscate,[145] octagonal prism, pyramid, sphere, or triangle. The remaining reactive nonmetals, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur and selenium, being sandwiched between the strongly electronegative halogen nonmetals and the weakly nonmetallic metalloids, are (on an overall basis) moderately nonmetallic in nature. : Roentgenium, veraltet: Unununium (Uuu), veraltet: Eka-Gold, veraltet: Symbol Uub, Copernicium, veraltet: Ununbium (Uub), veraltet: Eka-Quecksilber, veraltet: Symbol Uut, Nihonium, veraltet: Ununtrium (Uut), veraltet: Eka-Thallium, veraltet: Symbol Uuq, Flerovium, veraltet: Ununquadium (Uuq), veraltet: Eka-Blei, veraltet: Symbol Uup, Moscovium, veraltet: Ununpentium (Uup), veraltet: Eka-Bismut, veraltet: Symbol Uuh, Livermorium, veraltet: Ununhexium (Uuh), veraltet: Eka-Polonium, veraltet: Symbol Uus, Tenness, veraltet: Ununseptium (Uus), veraltet: Eka-Astat, veraltet: Symbol Uuo, Oganesson, veraltet: Ununoctium (Uuo), veraltet: Eka-Radon. [31] Beryllium, for example, is classified as an alkaline earth metal although its amphoteric chemistry and tendency to mostly form covalent compounds are both attributes of a chemically weak or post-transition metal. [63], The first ionization energy is the energy it takes to remove one electron from an atom, the second ionization energy is the energy it takes to remove a second electron from the atom, and so on. Realizing that an arrangement according to atomic weight did not exactly fit the observed periodicity in chemical properties he gave valency priority over minor differences in atomic weight. [98] This concept eventually became known as valency, where different elements bond with different numbers of atoms. They closely resemble Ca, Sr and Ba, but many are heavier, and they form mostly pale colored compounds. [133] Because many of the transuranic elements are highly unstable and decay quickly, they are challenging to detect and characterize when produced. [n 17] However, this similarity does not extend to the 15 actinide elements (Ac–Lr), which show a much wider variety in their chemistries. Döbereiner also observed that, when arranged by atomic weight, the second member of each triad was roughly the average of the first and the third. Veraltet: Lanthanide. Unlike chemical compounds, chemical elements cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means. This is visible comparing H and He (1s) with Li and Be (2s); N–F (2p) with P–Cl (3p); Fe and Co (3d) with Ru and Rh (4d); and Nd–Dy (4f) with U–Cf (5f). chemisches Element превод на речника немски български на Glosbe, онлайн речник, безплатно. Die maximalen und die minimalen Werte für die Dichte, den Schmelzpunkt, den Siedepunkt und die Anzahl stabiler Isotope sind farblich hervorgehoben.. Liste. Moseley determined the value of the nuclear charge of each element and showed that Mendeleev's ordering actually places the elements in sequential order by nuclear charge. [170] Nevertheless, it is occasionally placed separately from any group as well. [198], In this variant, group 3 bifurcates after Sc-Y into a La-Ac branch, and a Lu-Lr branch. [135], The modern periodic table is sometimes expanded into its long or 32-column form by reinstating the footnoted f-block elements into their natural position between the s- and d-blocks, as proposed by Alfred Werner in 1905. [1][2] The first 94 elements, hydrogen to plutonium, all occur naturally, though some are found only in trace amounts and a few were discovered in nature only after having first been synthesized. LISTE DER CHEMISCHEN ELEMENTE, alphabetisch geordnet Name Symbol Ordnungs-Entdeckung Entdecker Aggregat- Schmelz- Siedepunkt 2) Erstelle eine Tabelle mit den 3 Elementarteilchen eines Atoms, ihrem Symbol, ihrer Ladung und ihrer Masse in u. A missing element between Si and Sn was predicted with atomic weight 73 and valency 4. This arrangement is consistent with the hypothesis that arguments in favour of either Sc-Y-La-Ac or Sc-Y-Lu-Lr based on chemical and physical data are inconclusive. These bonds are therefore stretched and therefore weaker compared to the homologous ones of the 4d and 5d elements (the 5d elements show an additional d-expansion due to relativistic effects). [130], In 1945, Glenn Seaborg, an American scientist, made the suggestion that the actinide elements, like the lanthanides, were filling an f sub-level. Most are solid or gaseous. Chemically they are characterised, to varying degrees, by covalent bonding tendencies, acid-base amphoterism and anionic species such as aluminates, stannates, and bismuthates. The two variants originate from historical difficulties in placing the lanthanides in the periodic table, and arguments as to where the f block elements start and end. In periodic table terms, the first time an electron occupies a new shell corresponds to the start of each new period, these positions being occupied by hydrogen and the alkali metals.

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